阅读总结(2003.3.31-2003.4.6)

onion 2003-04-10 21:47:13

RC

【注意】
1.索引：本周全部阅读JJ按出现顺序索引，题目后括号内的次数表示本周重复出现的JJ，并只在同一个题目下添加内容；
2.题目下面直接是本周机经。一些考友只写了题目，总结时，若有以往机经，则进行了添加。若没有发现以往机经，则只保留了题目，各位考友可协助补充；
3.一些考友只写了极简单的话，无法进行分析和汇总。这部分作为附录放在最后。

*索引*
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1。美国妇女教育问题（4次）
2。黑人工会
3。马克思的《资本论》（4次）
4。脉冲星
5。Women who took up legal cases in 18th century England
6。Chinese in 1975 who measured the topology of Mt Everest
7。正面表述与负面表述
8。PAPER WASP（2次）
9。women’s sufferance in Switzerland
10。美国的私人医院的失败原因
11。蛾子
12。Travel agency行业
13。鸟类飞行起源
14。Green label
15。美洲人迁移
16。动物的相互学习
17。微粒影响地球温度
18。家庭工作在GDP中的地位
19。一个女性组织提出的办公环境对健康有害的问题
20。关于男女在工作机会上的两个理论
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1。美国妇女教育问题

附旧JJ：

[版本一]women education opportunity around the American Revolution time. (50 lines) (old JJ)
第一段， A认为是在American revolution 之后，共和党政府提倡妇女受教育，是因为妇女对孩子的教育影响巨大，而children is the key factors to decide the future of Republic government.
(第一题：why the leader of the Republic government what the women to get educated?)

第二段，prior to American revolution, B的研究是个Noble exception。 B’s research focus on the education opportunity for women and girls. B use the statistics on the newspaper, etc. to do the research.
(第二题：what’s the exception of B’s research?)

第三段， A的研究obscure了B的研究，关于women education opportunity around the American Revolution time 的争论无定局：到底是象A所说：是在American revolution 之后，共和党政府给了妇女受教育的机会。还是象B所说：prior to American revolution， the opportunity for women is already exist but get strengthened after American Revolution.
(第三题：what’s the research difference between A and B?)

((第四题：what’s the main idea of the whole passage?)

[版本二]有关美国妇女教育, 一个人在19世纪末得时候提出了这是因为什么revolution后, 开始发展. 而另一个人提出另一种观点, 说不是因为这个revolution. 在17多少年就有人开始研究这个.

[版本三]5o lines, about the woman's education after American Revolution

[版本四]关于对妇女教育的态度转变。某些学者认为在18世纪对妇女教育的态度有了较大转变，因为18世纪政府认为教育妇女才能使她们更好的教育小孩，从而培养government elite, 所以开始鼓励妇女接受教育以帮助CHURCH AND SCHOOL对CHILDREN 进行教育.但另一人说其实18CENTURY以前已经重视妇女的教育了。这篇出题不太难，有一题问两派的分歧在哪，我选了“是否在18世纪有重大转变”。

[版本五]一篇是说妇女的教育问题，指出妇女应该要受教育，目的是让妇女培养出适合新政治的一代。

[版本六]18CENTURY,某学家THINK因为教育未来GOVERNENT ELITE的需要,开始鼓励WOMAN接受教育以帮助CHURCH AND SCHOOL对CHILDREN 进行教育.但另一人说其实18CENTURY以前已经重视WOMAN的教育了.

[版本七]美国妇女的教育问题，关于此方面有前人jj，但我遇到的内容是关于revolution 前后对待妇女教育的态度变化（主题很关键）。原文讨论的论题是态度是什么时候改变的，但一开始说了一大堆绕来绕去的话。

第一段，一般认为美国revolution 之后，共和党政府提倡妇女受教育，是因为妇女对孩子有很大影响，而少年儿童是我们伟大祖国的未来，为了革命事业后继有人，妇女就要受教育。（你把共和党换成共产党也一样。一踢死这斯狡猾大大的，看到这里，我以为下面将要说某人反对妇女受教育了，或者某人说，不对，妇女受教育是她们自身的发展需要之）

第二段，话锋一转，后来的研究如何如何（不重要），只有某牛人一的研究是个exception(注意！)。该牛人研究了一本书，该书是在xxx年（革命前）就出版了，该书说了当时对妇女受教育有一个呼吁（有题），然后一大堆什么什么

第三段，但是牛人二和牛人三的研究obscure了牛人一的研究，他们认为共和党是代表富裕阶级的利益，如何如何。然而民主党才是代表广大劳动人民的利益的（三个代表原来在这里），所以应该是民主党在革命前就提出了妇女受教育的问题了，时间在xx年（是在革命前但在牛人一认为的后面）后面有一个举例（有题问作用）。

[版本八]19世纪的老观点认为妇女对教育没兴趣，因为妇女的所有工作就是做家务劳动。但是新观点认为教育对妇女的健康（有题）和其他方面有帮助。新老观点都认为妇女的主要工作就是家务劳动，但是对教育对妇女的影响持不同的态度。
问题1：主题题。
问题2：新老观点的相同点。他们认为妇女的主要工作就是家务劳动。

[版本九] 讲美国内战后某人提出要鼓励women go to school ，然后说这是民主社会的政治需要。再说及妇女在政治生活中对下一代的重要作用。etc......

[版本十] revolution後的教育某人說婦女教育機會增加因為要把政治進入家庭
另一人發現其實在revolution之前男孩和女孩教育機會是平等的

[版本十一] 妇女教育的那道
第一段：女科学家k认为revolution后关于妇女接受教育的情况改变了
第二段：科学家w认为revolution之前妇女受教育的问题就受关注了

[版本十二] 妇女教育问题
不过老实说老机警的大案真的不对，两个鸟人争论的焦点其实不在是不是在revolution 前后注意！！！

[版本十三] 一片长的老几经：妇女教育机会在革命战争前后的变化。但是有一题很绕：
at what point k’s view is different from w’s of the article:
c. the extent to which women’s having education opportunity is supported before revolution war.
e. are there any change in 18 century in the opportunity of women’s education. (选项长)
i chose c.

the other:
w is special in which aspect from the author’s view?
a. innovative for research by advertising on newspaper.
e. examine girls education.
i chose e.

2。黑人工会

附旧JJ：

[版本一]Post-war Black union 的作用。(50 lines)
Black union一开始受到 White union 的排挤。然后Black union通过为Black union和White union的共同利益奋斗，获得了White union的认同。

[版本二]60行。黑人受到工会歧视，仍争取加入工会，为自己的权益做斗争，并赢得了racist union 的respect.

[版本三]黑人问题：讲黑人在post-war后追求自由，第一段讲有2个观点，第二段讲这个问题给工会带来了困难，然后说什么样的困难，其实说的就是要维护白人利益，不过黑人又在争取权利，所以工会困难。第三段记不起来，不过题目不难。

[版本四]美国工会
第一段：历史学家对美国工会在二战时期所起作用有不同看法。一派认为，二战期间工会和黑人形成了联盟，但战后这种关系消失了。另一派认为，二战期间工会一直是为白人说话的，而不是黑人。作者认为这两派观点是不可调和的，而且都不太充分。
第二段：美国工会面临这样的选择，是继续战前的政策还是接受所有类型人员。
问题1：主题题。
问题2：两派历史学家对什么形成了分歧。工会和Africa American的关系。
问题3：作者如何评价两派历史学家的观点。都没有反映出工会和黑人关系的复杂性。
问题4：“美国工会面临这样的选择”这句话的作用

[版本五] 黑人在美国unskilled labor中占了80%。某工会（a）不愿意接受黑人成员。另一工会（b）根据equal civil rights条款，广泛接受黑人进入工会，黑人在b工会中是backbone。尽管如此，白人工会领袖——包括b在内，仍然歧视黑人worker，使黑人非常受压迫。但是黑人兄弟仍忍辱负重，因为他们知道只有通过工会力量才能替自己争取economic利益。他们这样的努力果然获得了成效。后来黑人自己成立了工会组织，并且通过斗争为自己、也同时为白人工人取得了利益，这使白人工会领袖也对他们刮目相看。
我遇到的问题： 1、当时不接受黑人的工会怎么怎么的？选不接受黑人的工会的目的是通过增加白人来加强力量（大意）

[版本六] 关于20世纪初美国黑人兄弟为什么喜欢工会。20世纪初时一般工会不欢迎黑人兄弟，但黑人兄弟对工会仍然保有好感，这时跳出一人挑起一工会，欢迎黑人兄弟入会。按理说黑人兄弟被团结起来应该可以争取改善自身状况了吧，可事实开始并非如此，参加工会的白人可以借助工会力量同万恶的资本家谈判并获得状况改善，黑人兄弟并没有这个福分，结论是工会没用？非也！工会仍在不懈努力，经过一段时间，国家终于发布一要求，不分肤色人人平等，于是世界大同，结论工会有作用，黑人兄弟对工会的眷恋还是有道理的。。（这是最后一篇，由于速读，细节可能有误）。

[版本七] 关于africa america与union的关系。union对africa america 歧视，如××，但其中有一个union还对africa america不错，虽然与africa america 有很多negotiated contract,但是也难免有一些segregation(有题：问negotiated contraction in order to :选contradict上文提到的union 对africa的态度)。后来在africa的努力下，即使是racialist union 也开始接受a了，原因是他们发现a对白人和黑人同样有帮助（有提：为什么racialist union接受a 选因为他们觉得对自己有好处）还有一道主题题。

[版本八] 黑人和ｕｎｉｏｎ的关系
１９００－１９３０年，（好像是这个年分），ａ工会不喜欢黑人，而ｂ工会（好像叫ｃｉｏ）宣称它对所有工会成员都平等，所以黑人成了它的ｂａｃｋｂｏｎｅ。however, through白人工会成员的ｎｅｇｏｔｉａｔｉｏｎ，实际上黑人在这个工会里还是受歧视。（ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ这句话特长，有题）但黑人无所谓，仍然参加很多活动.终于出现很多黑人的能干的ｏｒｇａｎｉｚｅｒ，为工人争取到很多利益and gain respect from while people（有题）
题目：主题是什么？我选ａ：黑人参加ｌａｂｏｒ　ｕｎｉｏｎ的活动is ultimately beneficial to workers
问ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ那句话的作用？
问工会里白人对黑人的态度是什么？一个答案是一直是歧视的态度，还有一个是先歧视后改变。我想了半天，选了后者，因为文中有个ｇａｉｎ　ｒｅｓｐｅｃｔ

[版本九] Black union对一个叫CIF的工会组织提供backbone,这个组织有白人。后来黑人意识到为了自己好,还是要和白人打交道*******
最后总结: Black union的努力有了回报,他为所有工人谋福利黑人包括白人，所以获得了respect even from White union.(有题)

3。马克思那篇，问：
1）马克思和第一个人（马克思后出现的第一个人）都同意哪个观点。
2) 作者最同意哪个观点
3) 如果以下哪个情况成立会削弱作者的观点。
4) 第一和第二个人都认为…

[新JJ] Karl Marx, Neo Classical and 20th century economists view on technological innovation impact on labour.
Difficulty (Medium)

附旧JJ：

[版本一] 马克思经济学Unemployment views of Marxism, Neo-economics, and 20 century economics.
马克思理论认为技术革新增加事业率,生产革新及生产率提高的将使更多的工人下岗，从而增加了失业率。新经济学派认为马克思不对。说技术革新提高了生产率从而使商品的价格下降，提高了购买力，远远抵消失业带来的消极影响。同时购买力的提高会刺激生产规模的扩大，反而会增加新的工作机会。19世纪经济学派认为失业的是经济繁荣的必要条件，因为他们为经济发展提供了可获得的（affordable）劳动力保障。可作者认为此学派的观点有错误。虽说失业工人是劳动力保障，但失业率太高将给社会带来危机:失业者必然购买很少，购买力下降将对生产产生负作用，生产不足有增加事业率,形成恶性循环.
1问是马克思和该学派的观点不同之处。
2问新经济学派与19世纪经济学派观点相同指出
3作者同意19世纪经济学派以下哪个观点
4如果以下哪个东东是真的,可以削弱作者观点
*以前机经详细，出现的第一篇文章，简单易懂，但问题答案选项迷惑性大，许多选项似是而非，花了不少时间。

[版本二] 马克思的观点认为：机器替代了工人，造成失业率上升。新古典经济学家认为机器替代了工人，使之成本下降，工厂可以雇佣更多极高的工人生产更多产品。此外成本低，工人买东西更省钱。最终达到经济繁荣。认为一定失业是必要的。但是新观点忽视了失业率极高也会带来恶果。

[版本三]
Work and machine.
Tow (or three ) group A, B, and C.
A said that the more technology innovation the higher unemployed rate but more production. The more production, the fewer prices of the products, and thus people can consume in other products, which produced by other industry. and because the additional purchase induces the more need on workers and more need on the technology innovation. Also keeping a certain unemployed rate stabilizes the wage cost.

B said that It is a vicious cycle: more unemployment ->no consumption-> no production->more lay-off -> more unemployment again

C said that A overlooks the unemployment rate. If the unemployed reserve rate is higher and higher, eventually will harm (something I forget)

3.1Q What id the same opinion between group A and B?
answer: they all agree that the technology might induce the unemployed rate.

[版本四]
马克思理论认为技术革新增加事业率,生产革新及生产率提高的将使更多的工人下岗，从而增加了失业率。新经济学派认为马克思不对。说技术革新提高了生产率从而使商品的价格下降，提高了购买力，远远抵消失业带来的消极影响。同时购买力的提高会刺激生产规模的扩大，反而会增加新的工作机会。19世纪经济学派认为失业的是经济繁荣的必要条件，因为他们为经济发展提供了可获得的（affordable)劳动力保障。可
作者认为此学派的观点有错误。虽说失业工人是劳动力保障，但失业率太高将给社会带来危机:失业者必然购买很少，购买力下降将对生产产生负作用，生产不足有增加事业率,形成恶性循环.
1问是马克思和该学派的观点不同之处。
2问新经济学派与19世纪经济学派观点相同指出
3作者同意19世纪经济学派以下哪个观点
4如果以下哪个东东是真的,可以削弱作者观点

[版本五]
Unemployment views of Marxism, Neo-economics, and 20 century economics

[版本六]
马克思的《资本论》认为，生产革新及生产率提高的将使更多的工人下岗，从而增加了失业率。
一学派认为马克思不对（忒大胆！否认我们祖师爷！）。说生产革新提高了生产率从而使商品的价格下降，提高了购买力，部分抵消了对失业工人的消极影响。同时购买力的提高会刺激生产规模的扩大，反而会增加新的工作机会。再者，部分失业的工人是经济发展的必要条件，因为他们为经济发展提供了可获得的（affordable)劳动力保障。
作者认为此学派的观点有错误。虽说失业工人是劳动力保障，但失业率太高将给社会带来危机。同时失业的工人必然购买很少，购买力下降将对生产减生负作用，不利于经济发展云云。大意如此。
问题有3-4道，其中一个问是马克思和该学派的观点共同之处。再一个是好象是问作者反对的此学派所认为的观点是下列那一项。还有一个好象是infer题，忘了。

[版本七]
讲有关工业社会的发展会导致大量的失业，然后有人反驳说工业的发展给整个社会的发展带来更大的好处，最后一批20世纪的专家通过研究上述两个理论得出虽然工业发展会给失业带来一定影响，但肯定会促进整个社会发展。最后作者提出20世纪专家的观点忽略了一个问题：失业率不能过高，否则工业发展了，但很多人没有工作，就没有足够的购买力购买产品，最后导致大量的工业成品积压等等，最后反而会使社会发展停滞，造成恶性循环。

4。脉冲星

附旧JJ：

[版本一] gmat补充阅读汇编的题（好象）讲脉冲星（pullsar)本应该随着年龄的增长，越转越慢。可新发现的一颗其老无比的 pullsar仍然转的其快无比。科学家猜想是个双星系统的缘故，使之能相互补充能量。

5。Women who took up legal cases in 18th century England
Difficulty (easy)

6。Chinese in 1975 who measured the topology of Mt Everest
(Easy)

7。瞎子说:正面表述比负面述更有说服力,举了个例子.卖牛肉时说牛肉含(多达75%的精肉)比说它(只含25%的脂肥?)更好卖!!二当家的跳出来说:不对!其实负面表述比正面表述更有说服力.然后又说了一大堆.最后,至尊宝出来做总结,其实你们都不对. 当人喜欢某个东东的时候,正面表述更有说服力,害怕某个东东的时候,负面表述更有说服力! 大意如此！

问题之一:按照文中第16,17行的说法(二当家说的),以下那句最有说服力?
我选的答案是:对某人说他如果不如何如何,就会得心脏病如何如何!

8。PAPER WASP，黄蜂的一种行为的解释
黄蜂’s colony have several foundress, but only one of them, the biggest one, become the queen and the rest become subordinates ranked in hirachy according to body size and these subs do some jobs as workers. But as time goes by, after the queen lay eggs and the professional workers mature, the subordinates are found soon disappear from the colony. And it is always the case that the higher rank subordinates leaves first. Old explanation is that there are many conflicts between subordinates and queens as well as professional workers.

However, some GG recently found no evidence that support the old explanation. GG further hypothesize that the subs leave because they can find a new colony and become the queen there. The bigger ones leave first is try to take the opportunity as early as possible.

附旧JJ：

[版本一] paper wasp的一些习性。说的是工蜂在一段时间后会disappear，而且是higher rank先消失，讨论其原因。

[版本二] 2月jj的wasp那道，什么colony、queen、subordinate三者的相互关系，好象2段，前后意见相左。（长）

9。women’s sufferance in Switzerland

比较了妇女的SUFFERANCE在瑞士和美国的不同情况.
说1920年代时, 工业化在两个国家都已经很普遍了，瑞士甚至高过美国，但是城市化，美国却比瑞士高很多。这可能是一个解释。可是城市化的高低也不是很好的解释。另外的原因是瑞士的这些行政区划成立了一些组织，可能是这些组织导致了两个国家不同的情况。

10。美国的私人医院的失败原因

近年来，由于美国的公立医院的病人有很多不满，又陪钱，总之很多问题，所以美国新起了很多私人医院，但是大多都失败了。原因是，这些医院多数是私人投资，他们的那套MARKETING 和FIANACIAL BACKING的做法并不适合，因为急于达到“quick_fix” 的目的，他们通常买了一个旧的医院，拆了，建一个新的，然后希望可以从银行哪里获得贷款什么的。可以结果是新医院的经济效益并不好，很多病床空着。
作者认为应该把工作的重心放到提高医院的服务质量上，才能吸引更多的病人。因为以前旧医院的失败就是因为病人的满意程度很低。方法有提高护士的工资和培训等，因为护士跟病人接触最多。

11。林中有一种蛾子,科学家研究时发现,它有一个奇怪的生命现象,就是周期性地灭绝与再生.科学家试图用环境的变化或是天敌情况来解释都行不通.最后在死去的蛹中发现了一种病毒,但是这种病毒一直存在呵,为什么会产生这种周期呢? 终于有了答案,原来这种病毒有潜伏期,当它暴露在阳光下时,不会Active, 但是当蛾子的蛹不小心吃下这种病毒时,它就会发作,蔓延,直至杀死所有蛾子.科学家原以为病毒是在蛾子的周期现象过程中出现的,现在才知道是病毒Initiate的这种周期现象.
(文中没有说明每次蛾子灭绝后,是怎么复活的.所以好象不Make Sense,但是GMAT的文章就是这样呵,拐弯抹角,遮遮藏藏,把自己想要说的话说完就算)

12。Travel agency行业希望随着Business的全球化,一起全球化,尤其最近限制航空公司的政策放宽,国际旅行人数越来越多. 但是有很多障碍实现全球化,象当地公司的垄断,或是资金问题.但是有一个特例,某人就成功的,轻而易举地实现了这种全球化.他是怎么做的呢? 他与各国当地的Travel agency结盟(alliance),建立了很大的企业,有多个联盟分布多个国家。

13。鸟类飞行起源

附旧JJ：

[版本一] 第一篇就是鸟类起源。一道主旨题，一道细节题(ans tree is not high)

[版本二] 鸟类飞行起源的两个观点（有一主题题）：一是从树上滑下，如一种鸟的祖先A，但作者反对：1）A不可能同时爬树同时发展会飞的翅膀（有一题）；2）考古发现A当时的habitats的树最多只有几米高；3）而且当时很多small animals也会爬树，但没有发展成会飞。（有一题问哪个事实加强作者的观点，选项中有2）和3），非常混淆）。所以作者认为理论一不大可行。观点二是在追捕猎物或躲避捕食者时助跑起飞。但这需要非常快的起跑速度。然而作者又举了一个例证支持这一观点。。。。

[版本三]Evaluation of the 2 hypothesizes about bird’s fly ability。（JJ一篇，问题简单，答案易选。）

[版本四]two theories about how birds began to fly: one is they climb the trees and slip down; another one is they need to capture their predetors.

[版本五]有关鸟类飞行起源的两种学说争论。第一种说鸟是从高高的书上跳下来的
飞起来的，有反例推翻。第二种说鸟类是在敌人追赶和袭击时滑翔起来的。有主
题题和反对第一种观点的论据细节题目(answer: tree is not high)。

[版本六]鸟类飞行的演变
一道时说鸟类飞行的演变，a理论说鸟类飞行是起源于动物丛书上跳下开始的，然后滑行什么的，但是考古发现比什么动物高的树不多，c理论说鸟类飞行是起源于动物追逐猎物时开始的。。。。

[版本七]有两个理论可解释动物如何学会飞翔. (75行)

[版本八]第一篇：有关鸟类飞行起源的两种学说争论。第一种说鸟是从高高的书上跳下来的飞起来的，有反例推翻。第二种说鸟类是在敌人追赶和袭击时滑翔起来的。有主题题和反对第一种观点的论据细节题目。

[版本九] 老机井：鸟类飞行的起源,有a理论和c理论，一段说a理论，鸟类是爬到树上往下跳，慢慢的学会glide，但作者有怀疑，提出某鸟似乎不能爬树，即使能爬，也不能glide,因为没有连接哪里哪里的membrance，再有什么什么小动物会爬树，但不会飞。另有一段说c理论，鸟类是逃避掠食者追赶时飞起来的，但飞起来要很快的速度，某种动物好象符合条件。

[英文版] Taking Wing
A new view of the origin of bird flight emerges
By Kate Wong

WINGING IT: Ground birds often seek out trees and other elevated spots for safety. Juveniles not yet capable of flight accomplish this by running up the inclines, flapping their wings to enhance traction. The way these birds employ their developing wings may demonstrate the process by which avian flight evolved.BOZEMAN, MONT.--It's not often that a presentation given to the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology elicits coos and clucks of sympathy. These are, after all, the scientists who study Tyrannosaurus rex and other fearsome beasts of the past. But that's exactly the reaction Kenneth Dial got when, at the group's annual meeting last October, he showed video footage of a fuzzy little partridge chick with its wings taped to its sides trying to climb a tree--only to tumble down into Dial's waiting hands. Unfettered, however, the chick flapped its tiny wings while climbing and steadily made its way up. After teasing the audience for its sentimental display, the University of Montana biologist returned to the matter at hand: explaining how this and other experiments involving ground-dwelling birds led him to hatch a new hypothesis regarding the origin of avian flight. Traditionally, scholars have advanced two theories for how bird flight evolved. One of these, dubbed the arboreal model, holds that it developed in a tree-dwelling ancestor that was built for gliding but started flapping to extend its air time. The other, known as the cursorial theory, posits that flight arose in small, bipedal terrestrial theropod dinosaurs that sped along the ground with arms outstretched and leaped into the air while pursuing prey or evading predators. Feathers on their forelimbs enhanced lift, thereby allowing the creatures to take wing. As the idea that birds descended from dinosaurs gained acceptance by all but a few paleontologists, so too did the cursorial hypothesis. But both the arboreal and the cursorial scenarios have explanatory gaps. As far as tree dwellers go, of the hundreds of nonavian gliding vertebrates around today, not one flaps its appendages. And why would natural selection have favored the development of little protowings in a theropod equipped with heavily muscled legs for running across the ground? Neither theory, Dial asserts, adequately addresses the step-by-step adaptations that led to fully developed flight mechanics. Dial's eureka moment came after learning that partridges and their fellow ground birds routinely abandon terra firma in favor of trees and other elevated spots for safety. Although these animals appear to fly up into trees, he found on closer inspection that in many cases they were actually running up--legs bent and body pitched toward the tree--while flapping their wings. Subsequent research revealed that wing flapping assists in this vertical running by sticking the bird to the side of the tree, much as a spoiler helps to press a race car to a track. Although the adult ground birds are generally perfectly capable of flying up trees, their preference for running may stem from a time early in life when they couldn't yet fly: before a baby ground bird has the ability to launch itself into the air, the only means it has for getting off the ground is vertical running. And as Dial's experiments show, when a juvenile is trying to evade a predator this way, the aid of even a partially formed wing can mean the difference between life and death. Perhaps a bird ancestor's protowing conferred the same benefit, he suggests, and therefore natural selection favored its development. Over time, wings evolved to the point of enabling not only vertical running but, when employed by an animal running across the ground, flight. So far Dial's model has ruffled few feathers. Living animals do not necessarily make good models of extinct ones, however. \\\\\\\\\\"Is that the way bird ancestors did it? Well, maybe, maybe not,\\\\\\\\\\" comments Kevin Padian of the University of California at Berkeley. \\\\\\\\\\"But [Dial] is showing that it's possible.\\\\\\\\\\" For his part, Dial is leaving it to the paleontologists to figure out whether his theory of the genesis of avian flight jibes with future fossil finds--or whether it's for the birds.

Feathered dinosaurs

Four wings good
Jan 23rd 2003
From The Economist print edition

Chinese scientists have found a four-winged, feathered dinosaur

IT IS not always the biggest dinosaurs, such as Tyrannosaurus rex, that are the most exciting. This week sees the announcement of a 77cm fossil dinosaur find that has, remarkably, four feathered wings. It was discovered by a group headed by Xu Xing of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and is described this week in the journal Nature.
Dr Xu's team found two fossils of a new species that they named Microraptor gui, in the Liaoning province of China, about 300 kilometres north-east of Beijing. Microraptor is a theropod dinosaur, and a close relative to the velociraptor that was made famous by the film “Jurassic Park”. Its feathers have an asymmetrical shape very similar to modern bird feathers. Dr Xu says that Microraptor's feathers would have allowed it to glide through the air.
Because the dinosaur's feathers go all the way down to the bottom of Microraptor's legs, the researchers believe that it did not live on land. Running would have been difficult for an animal that was dragging its leg feathers on the ground. And dirt-covered feathers would also have made flying impossible.
As no one has yet worked out a way in which hind wings could be used for flapping in flight (and it is certainly hard to imagine how a bird with four wings would actually fly) researchers think that Microraptor must have been a tree-dweller that could glide.
Dr Xu supposes that it, or a similar four-winged dinosaur, might be an intermediate stage between earlier theropods that could not fly at all and Archeopteryx, a theropod that is thought to have been able to fly and is also the earliest identified bird species. Archeopteryx, like modern birds, had only two wings; Dr Xu guesses that the rear wings atrophied as bird ancestors moved from gliding to fully-fledged flight.
This gives ammunition to adherents of the arboreal school of thought, who hold that powered flight developed from gliding. The competing school holds that flight evolved on the ground, as some sort of powered running. Last week, researchers reported that partridges could run up steep hills more easily if they flapped their wings. This provides an evolutionary advantage as an intermediate step to flight, supporting the running school of thought.
While Dr Xu's results seem to be a stroke in favour of the arboreal school, a note of caution is in order. The last time such a fossil find was announced, in the October 1999 issue of National Geographic, it turned out to be a falsified specimen—the head and body of a primitive bird had been glued to the legs and tail of a theropod. But since Dr Xu and his collaborators were those who uncovered the hoax, there is good reason to believe that some dinosaurs had feathers.

====================================================================
Ornithology

Chicken run
Jan 16th 2003
From The Economist print edition

Birds that don't fly may be using their wings to run uphill

HOW did the chicken cross the road? According to scientists, at least, it flapped to the other side. Kenneth Dial has been studying bird flight for almost 20 years, and has been intrigued by birds such as grouse and pheasants, which spend much of their time on the ground—despite having wings. On the face of things, that seems odd. Flying birds are hatched naked, coddled in the nest, but do not start proper aviation lessons until they have been plumped up to the size of their parents. Ground birds, though, are hatched with feathers, and must survive from the day they crack out of the shell.
Dr Dial wanted to find out if ground birds might be using their wings. In his flight lab at the University of Montana in Missoula, he and two assistants recorded the activity of chukar partridges using high-speed video. The results of his work are reported in this week's issue of Science.
The film, which captures movement at up to 1,000 frames per second, revealed something unobservable to the naked eye: the birds seemed to use their wings to help them run up steep slopes. He dubbed this “wing-assisted incline running”, or WAIR, and set out to quantify its usefulness. It seems that new hatchlings could run up slopes steeper than 45° if they beat their wings vigorously, and four-day-olds could scale 60° inclines. By the time the birds had reached 20 days, some could make sheer vertical ascents of more than five metres, and could even get round overhanging slopes of up to 105°.
It seemed that wings were a great help. But Dr Dial wanted to be sure, so he compared the accomplishments of normal partridges with birds that had their wing feathers clipped to half their normal surface area, and to even less fortunate fowl whose main flight feathers were entirely plucked. In the youngest, clipping and plucking feathers did not make much difference. But when the birds were four or five days old, the less feathered started to show their deficiencies. Plucked birds could never ascend more than a 60° incline. Clipped birds, meanwhile, could not get up 90° slopes.
Dr Dial reckons that the wings act rather like spoilers on a racing car, improving traction. Wing strokes press the animal towards the ramp and help the bird stick to the surface rather than slipping over it. To confirm this, Dr Dial measured the direction in which the birds were forced by their wings, by mounting accelerometers on each animal's torso. He found that the birds are, for a substantial part of the wingbeat cycle, forced into the incline. Rather than flapping from back to belly, their wings are moving more like limbs—reaching forward and scooping backward.
Up to this point, Dr Dial has not weighed in on the debate about the evolution of flight. Now he feels he must. There are two divided camps. On one side are the people who believe that the first proto-birds climbed into trees and that, as they glided down, they figured out how to flap. But Dr Dial argues that none of the gliders that currently share the earth with us—such as frogs, lizards and squirrels—actually bother to flap. “Gliding is perfectly functional in its own right,” counters Dr Dial. The second camp argues that bipedal dinosaurs with partial wings learnt to use them to fly.
Both camps are claiming victory, believing that support for their theory is found in Dr Dial's results. Dr Dial, though, thinks his data point to an avian third way: that wings are for more than flying (or gliding, for that matter). Chickens everywhere can rest happy in the knowledge that their wings are more than just beer snacks.

14。Green label,大意是为了解决一个什么问题，用Green label，但是费用高，消费者不接受，但是还要继续用下去。

15。美洲人迁移

附旧JJ：

[版本一] 有些美国的settlement会整体迁移的原因。先说老观点，认为是climate导致。第二段某人说不是的，是人为过多破坏环境造成的，举例说在第一段中引用的干旱之前，人们已经离开。第三段说二段的解释也不完整，举例middlens地区（此处出了题），而且they are diferent with different settlement。

[版本二] native american搬迁原因探究，有的说气候变化，有的说资源耗尽，第三种否定前者（长）

16。“动物的相互学习”90L：
（首段）科学家观察到动物有相互学习的习惯，比如小哺乳动物模仿大动物发现可以吃的物体；鸟类则模仿不吃有毒的物体。
（2段）S学家对鸟的观察证实了以上的判断，但发现一种鸟列外（有题），但没有解释原因；
（3段）另一学家提出某种猜测以解释以上的列外。

17。 “微粒影响地球温度”45L：XX科学家对地球的变冷的重视与对变热的重视同样重视。…且发现工厂生产的微粒对变冷有作用。在夜间。。。，在白天。。。

18。“家庭工作在GDP中的地位”70L

附相关旧JJ：

[版本一] 妇女做家务不记入gdp
第一段：传统的非正式经济大部分是由妇女构成的,因为妇女大多在家\\"买汰烧\\",所以这样的非正式经济是由没有薪水的劳动组成的，不记入gdp。而一般定义的交易是离开家且有钱钱交易的才算数,或者在家里完成但是有薪水。
第二段：以前gdp的统计模型是排除非正式经济的,讲了些理由。
第三段：现在的政府大多采用的也是传统的模型,之所以不愿意将非正式经济统计进去，是因为用传统的统计方法可以更客观的对不同经济体之间的gdp进行比较。
问题1：主题题。
问题2：以下哪一种是传统意义上的非正式经济。
选项有某人为公司做投资顾问但自己不参与投资；有人要修房顶,但先得买修房顶的材料；有职员因为要在deadline前完成任务,所以把工作带到家里完成；教师觉得在教室批改作业太吵,所以带回家。
问题3：下列那种工作最有可能被传统统计方法遗漏。有人要修房顶但先得买修房顶的材料。
问题4：从文中可以推出什么。应用同一原则的统计方法更有利于不同国家间的经济量比较。
问题5：为什么仍沿用传统模型。

19。主要侧重讲一个女性组织提出的办公环境对健康有害的问题

有待后来者补充。

20。关于男女在工作机会上的两个理论

>>打印此页<<

>>关闭窗口<<